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Which of the Following Is Not an Example of Judicial Review of an Athletic Association Decision?

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Forms of competitive activity, normally concrete

Sport pertains to any form of competitive physical activity or game[1] that aims to use, maintain or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants and, in some cases, entertainment to spectators.[2] Sports can, through casual or organized participation, improve ane'due south physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with ane winner; in others, the contest (a lucifer) is between ii sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a "tie" or "draw", in which there is no unmarried winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner and one loser. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues brand an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases past playoffs.

Sport is more often than not recognised as system of activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity, with major competitions such as the Olympic Games admitting only sports meeting this definition.[3] Other organisations, such as the Council of Europe, preclude activities without a physical element from classification as sports.[2] Nevertheless, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition equally heed sports. The International Olympic Committee (through ARISF) recognises both chess and span as bona fide sports, and SportAccord, the international sports federation association, recognises 5 non-physical sports: span, chess, draughts (checkers), Go and xiangqi,[four] [5] and limits the number of mind games which tin be admitted as sports.[1]

Sport is normally governed by a prepare of rules or community, which serve to ensure fair competition, and allow consistent arbitrament of the winner. Winning can exist determined by concrete events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can besides exist determined past judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical performance or artistic impression.

Records of performance are frequently kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a major source of amusement for not-participants, with spectator sport cartoon large crowds to sport venues, and reaching wider audiences through broadcasting. Sport betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport.

According to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth upward to $620 billion as of 2013.[half-dozen] The earth'due south nearly accessible and practised sport is running, while association football game is the most popular spectator sport.[7]

Meaning and usage

Etymology

The word "sport" comes from the Onetime French desport meaning "leisure", with the oldest definition in English from around 1300 being "anything humans find amusing or entertaining".[8]

Other meanings include gambling and events staged for the purpose of gambling; hunting; and games and diversions, including ones that require exercise.[9] Roget'southward defines the noun sport as an "activity engaged in for relaxation and entertainment" with synonyms including diversion and recreation.[10]

Classification

The atypical term "sport" is used in almost English language dialects to depict the overall concept (e.g. "children taking role in sport"), with "sports" used to describe multiple activities (e.g. "football and rugby are the almost pop sports in England"). American English uses "sports" for both terms.

Definition

The precise definition of what separates a sport from other leisure activities varies between sources. The closest to an international agreement on a definition is provided by SportAccord, which is the association for all the largest international sports federations (including association football game, athletics, cycling, tennis, equestrian sports, and more than), and is therefore the de facto representative of international sport.

SportAccord uses the following criteria, determining that a sport should:[1]

  • have an element of competition
  • be in no way harmful to any living creature
  • non rely on equipment provided by a single supplier (excluding proprietary games such as loonshit football game)
  • not rely on any "luck" element specifically designed into the sport.

They besides recognise that sport can be primarily physical (such as rugby or athletics), primarily mind (such every bit chess or Go), predominantly motorised (such equally Formula 1 or powerboating), primarily co-ordination (such as billiard sports), or primarily animal-supported (such as equestrian sport).[ane]

The inclusion of mind sports within sport definitions has not been universally accepted, leading to legal challenges from governing bodies in regards to existence denied funding bachelor to sports.[11] Whilst SportAccord recognises a small number of mind sports, it is not open to albeit any further mind sports.

There has been an increase in the application of the term "sport" to a wider set of non-physical challenges such as video games, also called esports (from "electronic sports"), especially due to the big scale of participation and organised competition, but these are non widely recognised by mainstream sports organisations. According to Council of Europe, European Sports Lease, article 2.i, "'Sport' means all forms of physical activity which, through coincidental or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fettle and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels."[12]

Contest

100m race tape holder Usain Commodities (in xanthous, correct) and other runners, Moscow, 2013.

There are opposing views on the necessity of competition equally a defining element of a sport, with almost all professional sports involving competition, and governing bodies requiring competition as a prerequisite of recognition past the International Olympic Commission (IOC) or SportAccord.[1]

Other bodies advocate widening the definition of sport to include all physical activity. For instance, the Council of Europe include all forms of physical exercise, including those competed just for fun.

In order to widen participation, and reduce the impact of losing on less able participants, in that location has been an introduction of not-competitive physical activeness to traditionally competitive events such as schoolhouse sports days, although moves like this are oftentimes controversial.[13] [14]

In competitive events, participants are graded or classified based on their "effect" and often divided into groups of comparable operation, (due east.yard. gender, weight and historic period). The measurement of the result may be objective or subjective, and corrected with "handicaps" or penalties. In a race, for example, the time to complete the course is an objective measurement. In gymnastics or diving the effect is decided by a console of judges, and therefore subjective. In that location are many shades of judging betwixt boxing and mixed martial arts, where victory is assigned by judges if neither competitor has lost at the end of the match time.

History

Artifacts and structures suggest sport in China equally early on as 2000 BC.[fifteen] Gymnastics appears to take been popular in Mainland china's ancient past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a number of sports, including swimming and fishing, were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt.[16] Other Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, loftier jump, and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the traditional Iranian martial art of Zoorkhaneh had a shut connection to warfare skills.[17] Among other sports that originated in ancient Persia are polo and jousting.

A wide range of sports were already established by the time of Ancient Greece and the military civilization and the evolution of sport in Hellenic republic influenced one some other considerably. Sport became such a prominent part of their civilisation that the Greeks created the Olympic Games, which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia.[xviii]

Sports accept been increasingly organised and regulated from the time of the aboriginal Olympics up to the nowadays century. Industrialisation has brought increased leisure time, letting people nourish and follow spectator sports and participate in athletic activities. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global advice. Professionalism became prevalent, farther adding to the increment in sport's popularity, as sports fans followed the exploits of professional athletes – all while enjoying the exercise and competition associated with apprentice participation in sports. Since the turn of the 21st century, there has been increasing debate about whether transgender sports persons should be able to participate in sport events that conform with their postal service-transition gender identity.[19]

Fair play

Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship is an attitude that strives for fair play, courtesy toward teammates and opponents, upstanding behaviour and integrity, and grace in victory or defeat.[xx] [21] [22]

Sportsmanship expresses an aspiration or ethos that the action will exist enjoyed for its own sake. The well-known sentiment by sports journalist Grantland Rice, that information technology'southward "not that you won or lost but how y'all played the game", and the modernistic Olympic creed expressed by its founder Pierre de Coubertin: "The about important thing... is not winning but taking part" are typical expressions of this sentiment.

Cheating

Key principles of sport include that the result should not be predetermined, and that both sides should accept equal opportunity to win. Rules are in place to ensure fair play, but participants can break these rules in order to gain advantage.

Participants may cheat in order to unfairly increase their chance of winning, or in order to reach other advantages such as financial gains. The widespread being of gambling on the results of sports fixtures creates a motivation for friction match fixing, where a participant or participants deliberately work to ensure a given outcome rather than simply playing to win.

Doping and drugs

The competitive nature of sport encourages some participants to attempt to enhance their performance through the use of medicines, or through other ways such equally increasing the volume of blood in their bodies through artificial means.

All sports recognised by the IOC or SportAccord are required to implement a testing plan, looking for a list of banned drugs, with suspensions or bans being placed on participants who test positive for banned substances.

Violence

Violence in sports involves crossing the line betwixt fair competition and intentional aggressive violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash fierce behaviour on people or belongings, in misguided shows of loyalty, potency, anger, or celebration. Rioting or hooliganism past fans in particular is a problem at some national and international sporting contests.[ commendation needed ]

Participation

Gender participation

Female participation in sports continues to ascension alongside the opportunity for involvement and the value of sports for child evolution and physical fitness. Despite increases in female participation during the last three decades, a gap persists in the enrolment figures between male and female person players in sports-related teams. Female person players business relationship for 39% of the total participation in U.s. interscholastic athletics.

Youth participation

Youth sport presents children with opportunities for fun, socialisation, forming peer relationships, physical fitness, and athletic scholarships. Activists for teaching and the state of war on drugs encourage youth sport as a ways to increment educational participation and to fight the illegal drug trade. According to the Center for Injury Enquiry and Policy at Nationwide Children's Infirmary, the biggest risk for youth sport is death or serious injury including concussion. These risks come from running, basketball, association football, volleyball, gridiron, gymnastics, and ice hockey.[23] Youth sport in the United states is a $15 billion industry including equipment upwards to private coaching.[24]

Disabled participation

Disabled sports likewise adaptive sports or parasports, are sports played past persons with a disability, including physical and intellectual disabilities. As many of these are based on existing sports modified to encounter the needs of persons with a disability, they are sometimes referred to equally adapted sports. Nevertheless, not all disabled sports are adapted; several sports that have been specifically created for persons with a disability accept no equivalent in able-bodied sports.

Spectator involvement

Spectators at the 1906 unofficial Olympic Games

The competition element of sport, along with the aesthetic appeal of some sports, result in the popularity of people attending to sentry sport being played. This has led to the specific phenomenon of spectator sport.

Both amateur and professional sports attract spectators, both in person at the sport venue, and through broadcast media including radio, television and internet circulate. Both omnipresence in person and viewing remotely tin can incur a sometimes substantial accuse, such as an entrance ticket, or pay-per-view television broadcast.

It is common for popular sports to attract big broadcast audiences, leading to rival broadcasters bidding large amounts of money for the rights to show sure fixtures. The football World Cup attracts a global telly audition of hundreds of millions; the 2006 final alone attracted an estimated worldwide audition of well over 700 million and the 2011 Cricket World Cup Concluding attracted an estimated audience of 135 one thousand thousand in India alone.[25]

In the United States, the title game of the NFL, the Super Bowl, has become one of the well-nigh watched boob tube broadcasts of the twelvemonth.[26] [27] Super Bowl Sunday is a de facto national holiday in America;[28] [29] the viewership being so great that in 2015, advertising space was reported as being sold at $4.5m for a 30-second slot.[26]

Amateur and professional

Women's volleyball team of a U.Southward. university.

Sport can be undertaken on an amateur, professional person or semi-professional footing, depending on whether participants are incentivised for participation (ordinarily through payment of a wage or salary). Amateur participation in sport at lower levels is often called "grassroots sport".[2] [xxx]

The popularity of spectator sport equally a recreation for not-participants has led to sport becoming a major concern in its ain right, and this has incentivised a high paying professional sport culture, where high performing participants are rewarded with pay far in backlog of average wages, which can run across millions of dollars.[31]

Some sports, or individual competitions within a sport, retain a policy of assuasive only amateur sport. The Olympic Games started with a principle of amateur competition with those who practised a sport professionally considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practised information technology only as a hobby.[32] From 1971, Olympic athletes were allowed to receive bounty and sponsorship,[33] and from 1986, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics,[33] [34] with the exceptions of boxing,[35] [36] and wrestling.[37] [38]

Applied science

Engineering plays an important part in modern sport. With it being a necessary office of some sports (such as motorsport), it is used in others to improve operation. Some sports also use it to allow off-field determination making.

Sports science is a widespread bookish field of study, and can be applied to areas including athlete functioning, such as the use of video analysis to fine-tune technique, or to equipment, such equally improved running shoes or competitive swimwear. Sports technology emerged as a discipline in 1998 with an increasing focus not just on materials design just as well the use of technology in sport, from analytics and big data to wearable technology.[39] In society to command the impact of technology on fair play, governing bodies oftentimes have specific rules that are ready to control the affect of technical advantage betwixt participants. For example, in 2010, full-torso, not-textile swimsuits were banned by FINA, as they were enhancing swimmers' performances.[40] [41]

The increase in engineering science has too immune many decisions in sports matches to be taken, or reviewed, off-field, with another official using instant replays to brand decisions. In some sports, players tin now challenge decisions made past officials. In Association football, goal-line engineering makes decisions on whether a ball has crossed the goal line or not.[42] The technology is not compulsory,[43] but was used in the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil,[44] and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada,[45] also as in the Premier League from 2013–14,[46] and the Bundesliga from 2015–sixteen.[47] In the NFL, a referee can ask for a review from the replay booth, or a caput bus can event a claiming to review the play using replays. The final decision rests with the referee.[48] A video referee (commonly known as a Television Match Official or TMO) can too apply replays to help decision-making in rugby (both league and union).[49] [50] In international cricket, an umpire can ask the Third umpire for a conclusion, and the 3rd umpire makes the final decision.[51] [52] Since 2008, a decision review system for players to review decisions has been introduced and used in ICC-run tournaments, and optionally in other matches.[51] [53] Depending on the host broadcaster, a number of dissimilar technologies are used during an umpire or player review, including instant replays, Hawk-Centre, Hot Spot and Real Time Snickometer.[54] [55] Hawk-Eye is also used in tennis to challenge umpiring decisions.[56] [57]

Sports and education

Research suggests that sports have the capacity to connect youth to positive developed office models and provide positive development opportunities, besides every bit promote the learning and application of life skills.[58] [59] In recent years the utilize of sport to reduce crime, equally well as to forbid tearing extremism and radicalization, has become more widespread, particularly every bit a tool to amend self-esteem, heighten social bonds and provide participants with a feeling of purpose.[59]

In that location is no loftier-quality testify that shows the effectiveness of interventions to increase sports participation of the community in sports such every bit mass media campaigns, educational sessions, and policy changes.[60] In that location is also no high-quality studies that investigate the effect of such interventions in promoting healthy beliefs change in the customs.[61]

Politics

Benito Mussolini used the 1934 FIFA World Cup, which was held in Italia, to showcase Fascist Italy.[62] [63] Adolf Hitler besides used the 1936 Summertime Olympics held in Berlin, and the 1936 Wintertime Olympics held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, to promote the Nazi ideology of the superiority of the Aryan race, and inferiority of the Jews and other "undesirables".[63] [64] Germany used the Olympics to give off a peaceful image while secretly preparing for state of war.[65]

When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sports people, peculiarly in rugby wedlock, adopted the conscientious approach that they should not announced in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others experience that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects.[66]

In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were connected with cultural nationalism. Until the mid-20th century a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football, hurling, or other sports administered past the Gaelic Able-bodied Association (GAA) if she/he played or supported Association football, or other games seen to be of British origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of football and rugby union at Gaelic venues. This ban, too known equally Rule 42,[67] is still enforced, but was modified to permit football game and rugby to exist played in Croke Park while Lansdowne Road was redeveloped into Aviva Stadium. Until recently, under Dominion 21, the GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the RUC from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the Expert Fri Agreement in 1998 led to the eventual removal of the ban.

Nationalism is oftentimes evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences tin adopt a partisan view. On occasion, such tensions can atomic number 82 to violent confrontation among players or spectators inside and across the sporting venue, as in the Football game War. These trends are seen by many equally contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport beingness carried on for its ain sake and for the enjoyment of its participants.

Sport and politics collided in the 1972 Olympics in Munich. Masked men entered the hotel of the Israeli Olympic squad and killed many of their men. This was known as the Munich massacre.

A report of US elections has shown that the issue of sports events can affect the results. A written report published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences showed that when the home team wins the game earlier the ballot, the incumbent candidates can increment their share of the vote by 1.5 percentage. A loss had the contrary effect, and the effect is greater for higher-profile teams or unexpected wins and losses.[68] As well, when Washington Redskins win their final game before an election, then the incumbent President is more likely to win, and if the Redskins lose, then the opposition candidate is more likely to win; this has become known as the Redskins Rule.[69] [70]

Equally a means of decision-making and subduing populations

Étienne de La Boétie, in his essay Discourse on Voluntary Servitude describes athletic spectacles as means for tyrants to control their subjects by distracting them.

Do not imagine that at that place is any bird more hands caught past decoy, nor any fish sooner fixed on the hook by wormy bait, than are all these poor fools neatly tricked into servitude by the slightest feather passed, so to speak, before their mouths. Truly it is a marvellous matter that they allow themselves be caught so quickly at the slightest tickling of their fancy. Plays, farces, spectacles, gladiators, strange beasts, medals, pictures, and other such opiates, these were for ancient peoples the bait toward slavery, the toll of their liberty, the instruments of tyranny. Past these practices and enticements the ancient dictators and then successfully lulled their subjects under the yoke, that the stupefied peoples, fascinated past the pastimes and vain pleasures flashed before their eyes, learned subservience as naïvely, but not so creditably, as little children learn to read past looking at bright picture books.[71]

Religious views

The pes race was ane of the events dedicated to Zeus. Panathenaic amphora, Kleophrades painter, circa 500 BC, Louvre museum.

Sport was an important form of worship in Ancient Greek religion. The ancient Olympic Games, called the Olympiad, were held in honour of the head deity, Zeus, and featured diverse forms of religious dedication to him and other gods.[72] Equally many Greeks travelled to see the games, this combination of religion and sport also served as a way of uniting them.

The exercise of able-bodied competitions has been criticised past some Christian thinkers as a form of idolatry, in which "man beings extol themselves, adore themselves, sacrifice themselves and reward themselves."[73] Sports are seen by these critics as a manifestation of "collective pride" and "national self-deification" in which feats of human being power are idolized at the expense of divine worship.[73]

Tertullian condemns the athletic performances of his day, insisting "the entire apparatus of the shows is based upon idolatry."[74] The shows, says Tertullian, excite passions foreign to the calm temperament cultivated by the Christian:

God has enjoined us to deal calmly, gently, quietly, and peacefully with the Holy Spirit, because these things are lonely in keeping with the goodness of His nature, with His tenderness and sensitiveness. ... Well, how shall this be fabricated to accord with the shows? For the show always leads to spiritual agitation, since where there is pleasance, there is keenness of feeling giving pleasure its zest; and where there is keenness of feeling, there is rivalry giving in plough its zest to that. Then, too, where you accept rivalry, you have rage, bitterness, wrath and grief, with all bad things which period from them – the whole entirely out of keeping with the religion of Christ.[75]

Christian clerics in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement oppose the viewing of or participation in professional sports, believing that professional sports leagues profane the Sabbath as in the modern era, certain associations agree games on the Sunday.[76] They as well criticize professional sports for its fostering of a commitment that competes with a Christian'south master commitment to God in opposition to 1 Corinthians seven:35, what they perceive to be a lack of modesty in the players' and cheerleaders' uniforms (which are not in conformity with the Methodistic doctrine of outward holiness), its association with violence in opposition to Hebrews 7:26, what they perceive to be the extensive use of profanity among many players that contravenes Colossians iii:8–10, and the frequent presence of gambling, every bit well every bit alcohol and other drugs at sporting events, which go against a commitment to teetotalism.[76]

Popularity

Popularity in 2018 of major sports by size of fan base:[7]

Rank Sport Estimated Global Following Sphere of Influence
ane Association football (Soccer) four billion Globally
2 Cricket two.5 billion primarily Great britain and Republic
3 Hockey (Water ice and Field) 2 billion Europe, North America, Africa, Asia and Commonwealth of australia
iv Tennis 1 billion Globally
five Volleyball (forth with Embankment Volleyball) 900 million Americas, Europe, Asia, Oceania
6 Table tennis 875 million Mainly Due east Asia
7 Basketball 825 1000000 Globally
8 Baseball 500 million primarily United states of america, Caribbean and East Asia
9 Rugby Wedlock 475 million primarily UK, Ireland, France, Italian republic, Oceania, South Africa, Argentina, and Nippon.
10 Golf 450 one thousand thousand primarily Western Europe, East Asia and Northward America

See also

  • Outline of sports
  • Listing of sports
  • Listing of sportspeople
  • Listing of sports omnipresence figures
  • List of professional sports leagues
  • New Media and Sports

Related topics

  • Able-bodied sports
  • Animals in sport
  • Combat sport
  • Disabled sports
  • Electronic sports
  • Fan (person)
  • Handedness#Advantage in sports
  • International sport
  • Lawn game
  • Mind sport
  • Motor sports
  • Multi-sport events
  • National sport
  • Nationalism and sports
  • Olympic Games
  • Paralympic Games
  • Concrete education
  • Physical fitness
  • Spalding Athletic Library
  • Sponsorship
  • Sport in film
  • Sport psychology
  • Sports social club
  • Sports coaching
  • Sports commentator
  • Sports amusement
  • Sports equipment
  • Sports fan
  • Sports governing trunk
  • Sports injuries
  • Sports league attendances
  • Sports marketing
  • Sports nutrition
  • Sports terms named after people
  • Sports trainer
  • Sportsperson
  • Sportswear
  • Lord's day sporting events
  • Team sport
  • Underwater sports
  • Women'southward sports
  • Water sports
  • Winter sport

Sources

Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg This article incorporates text from a costless content piece of work. Licensed under CC BY-SA iii.0 IGO Text taken from Strengthening the dominion of constabulary through education: a guide for policymakers, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia manufactures, delight see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.

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Further reading

  • The Meaning of Sports by Michael Mandel (PublicAffairs, ISBN 1-58648-252-one).
  • Journal of the Philosophy of Sport
  • Sullivan, George. The Complete Sports Dictionary. New York: Scholastic Book Services, 1979. 199 p. ISBN 0-590-05731-6

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport

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